Social isolation

Psychology
- Social isolation

Social isolation refers to a condition where an individual experiences a complete or nearly total absence of interaction with society. This differs from loneliness, which indicates a temporary and involuntary absence of contact with others. While social isolation can affect individuals of all ages, the symptoms may vary by age group.

Social isolation exhibits similar characteristics in both temporary instances and for those who have experienced a lifelong cycle of isolation. Various forms of social isolation may involve staying home for extended periods, lacking communication with family, acquaintances, or friends, and/or intentionally avoiding any contact with others when opportunities arise.

Effects

True social isolation over years and decades can be a chronic condition that affects all aspects of a person's existence. Social isolation can lead to feelings of loneliness, fear of others, and negative self-esteem. A lack of consistent human contact can also cause conflict with peripheral friends. Moreover, the socially isolated person may occasionally talk to or encounter problems with family members.

In the case of mood-related isolation, the individual may isolate during a depressive episode only to 'surface' when their mood improves. They might attempt to justify their reclusive or isolating behavior as enjoyable or comfortable. The individual may experience an inner realization that their isolating responses are problematic, which can lead to heightened anxiety. Relationships can be challenging, as the individual may reconnect with others during a healthier mood, only to revert to an isolated state during a subsequent low or depressed mood.

Perceived social isolation in humans

Research shows that perceived social isolation (PSI) is a risk factor that may lead to "poorer overall cognitive performance and less effective executive functioning, accelerated cognitive decline, increased negative and depressive thoughts, greater sensitivity to social threats, and a self-protective confirmatory bias in social cognition." PSI also speeds up aging: Wilson et al. (2007) found that, even after accounting for social network size and frequency of activity, perceived social isolation still predicts cognitive decline and the risk of Alzheimer's disease. Additionally, the social interactions of those who feel isolated tend to be more negative and less fulfilling. This creates a vicious cycle, further deepening their isolation.

Neuroimaging studies

In the first resting-state fMRI functional connectivity (FC) study on PSI, PSI was associated with increased resting-state FC between several nodes of the cingulo-opercular network, a neural network linked to tonic alertness. Additionally, PSI was associated with reduced resting-state functional connectivity (FC) between the cingulo-opercular network and the right superior frontal gyrus, indicating diminished executive control. Cacioppo and colleagues (2009) found that lonely individuals exhibit weaker activation of the ventral striatum in response to pleasant pictures of people compared to objects, suggesting decreased reward to social stimuli. Lonely individuals also demonstrated greater activation of the visual cortex in response to unpleasant depictions of people (i.e., negative facial expressions) than to objects. Non-lonely individuals showed greater activation of the right and left temporoparietal junction (TPJ), a region implicated in theory of mind. The authors interpreted the findings as indicating that lonely individuals pay greater attention to negative social stimuli, while non-lonely individuals do so to a lesser extent than lonely individuals. Moreover, Kanai et al. (2012) reported that loneliness negatively correlated with gray matter density in the left posterior temporal sulcus, an area involved in biological motion perception, mentalizing, and social perception.

Many neuroimaging studies on perceived social isolation in humans have highlighted the role of the visual cortex and stress-related circuits in the right hemisphere, which differentiate between lonely and non-lonely individuals. A recent population-genetics study revealed a 50-fold increase in neuroimaging research focusing on perceived social isolation. Researchers examined markers of loneliness in grey matter morphology, intrinsic functional connectivity, and fiber tract microstructure. The neurobiological profiles associated with loneliness clustered in areas of the brain known as the default mode network. This network exhibits stronger associations with loneliness in grey matter volume than other cortical networks. Individuals who feel lonely show enhanced functional connectivity within the default network and increased microstructural integrity in its fornix pathway. These findings suggest that the enhanced activity of these neural circuits may facilitate mentalizing, reminiscence, and imaginative processes to address social deficits.

Background

Social isolation is both a potential cause and a symptom of emotional or psychological challenges. As a cause, the perceived inability to interact with the world and others can create an escalating pattern of these challenges. As a symptom, periods of isolation can be chronic or episodic, depending upon any cyclical mood changes, especially in the case of clinical depression.

Every day, aspects of this type of deep-rooted social isolation can mean:

staying home for an indefinite period due to lack of access to social situations rather than a desire to be alone;
both not contacting, and not being contacted by, any acquaintances, even peripherally; for example, never being called by anybody on the telephone and never having anyone visit one's residence;
a lack of meaningful, extended relationships, and especially close intimacy (both emotional and physical).

Contributing factors

The following risk factors contribute to the reasons why individuals distance themselves from society.

Aging – Once a person reaches an age where problems such as cognitive impairments and disabilities arise, they are unable to go out and socialize.
Health and disabilities – People may be embarrassed by their disabilities or health problems, such that they tend to isolate themselves to avoid social interaction out of fear that they would be judged or stigmatized. Sometimes, rather than embarrassment, the disability itself and a person's lack of a support network can be the cause of social isolation.
Autism – autistic and allistic (non-autistic) people communicate very differently, leading to mutual friction when they try talking to each other. As autistic people are in a steep minority, often unable to find peers who communicate the same way they do, they are frequently ostracised by the majority, who mistake their direct, semantic communication style for them being purposefully arrogant, brash, and obtuse.
Hearing loss can cause communication impairment, which can lead to social isolation, particularly in older adults.
The loss of a loved one can contribute to social isolation. Studies have shown that widows who keep in contact with friends or relatives have better psychological health. A study conducted by Jung-Hwa Ha and Berit Ingersoll-Dayton concluded that widows who had a lot of social contact and interactions had fewer depressive symptoms. During a time of loss, social isolation is not beneficial to an individual's mental health.
Living alone – A 2015 study by the National Center for Family & Marriage Research found 13 percent of adults in the United States were living alone, up from 12 percent in 1990. The rate of living alone for people under 45 has not changed, but the rate for Americans aged 45 – 65 has increased over the past 25 years. People over the age of 65 are living alone less often.
An abusive spouse may impose isolation.
Rural isolation – In rural areas, factors such as living far apart from one another, rural flight, a limited number of public spaces and entertainment options, and a lack of access to mental health resources all contribute to isolation. Limited access to broadband internet and cellular activity also makes it harder for those experiencing isolation to connect online or reach people.
Harassment – isolation can be an effect of someone experiencing harassment of a sexual nature
Unemployment – This can begin if someone is fired, dismissed, or released from a job or workplace, or leaves one of their own accord. If the person struggles or is unable to find a new job for a long period (i.e. months or years) the sense of isolation can become exacerbated, especially in men.
Independent home worker – The tasks implied in this kind of job generally do not imply social interaction at the physical level, nor going outside. Interactions and payments can be made by digital media so the person remains isolated from society.
Retirement – or other source of fixed income, makes it unnecessary for the person to search for a job, this situation is similar to unemployment, but with better living on one hand, but without the need to go outside on the other hand.
Transportation problems – If the person does not have transportation to attend gatherings or to simply get out of the house, they have no choice but to stay home all day, which can lead to feelings of depression.
Societal adversity – Desire to avoid the discomfort, dangers, and responsibilities arising from being among people. This can happen if other people are sometimes, or often, rude, hostile, critical or judgmental, crude, or otherwise unpleasant. The person would just prefer to be alone to avoid the hassles and hardships of dealing with people. Being a part of an outgroup and social categorization can also play a part in creating adverse circumstances that the individual may attempt to avoid, depending on the policies and attitudes of the society.
Substance abuse can be both cause and/or effect of isolation, often coinciding with mood-related disorders, especially among those living alone
Economic inequality – Poorer children have fewer school-class friends and are more often isolated. Adults on welfare, such as the Ontario Disability Support Program, prioritize their monthly entitlement towards rent and low-cost meals, leaving opportunities to socialize at restaurants and movie theaters out of the question.
Self-esteem – A person with a low self-esteem or lack of self love can contribute to that person's isolation. Having low self-esteem can cause one to overthink and stress themselves out when being around people, and can ultimately eliminate that feeling by isolating themselves. Removing this feeling can lead to an unfortunate social life in the future and can also harm potential relationships with others. According to Northeastern University, having low self-esteem can hold us back from reaching out to make plans with other people. It can make a person feel like they're a burden; therefore, they may once again isolate themselves from going out. This can also lead a person to think that they're not worthy of making friends or deserving love, and also make them feel like they don't deserve a happy life.
Lockdowns, such as those imposed in 2020 and 2021, in an attempt to prevent the spread of SARS-CoV-2.

Social isolation can begin early in life. During this time of development, a person may become more preoccupied with feelings and thoughts of their individuality that are hard to share with others. This can result from feelings of shame, guilt, or alienation during childhood experiences. Social isolation can also coincide with developmental disabilities. Individuals with learning impairments may have trouble with social interaction. The difficulties experienced academically can significantly impact an individual's self-esteem and sense of worth. An example would be the need to repeat a year of school. During the early childhood developmental years, the need to fit in and be accepted is paramount. Having a learning deficit can in turn lead to feelings of isolation, that they are somehow 'different' from others.

Whether new technologies, such as the Internet and mobile phones, exacerbate social isolation (of any origin) is a debated topic among sociologists. Studies show both a positive correlation between social connections and the use of social media and mood disorders coinciding with problematic use.

Isolation among the elderly

Social isolation affects approximately 24% of older adults in the United States, roughly 9 million people. The elderly face a unique set of isolating dynamics that often reinforce one another and can drive individuals into deeper isolation. Increasing frailty, possible declines in overall health, absent or uninvolved relatives or children, and economic struggles can all contribute to feelings of isolation. Among the elderly, childlessness can be a significant factor in social isolation. Whether a child is deceased or they did not have children at all, the loneliness stemming from not having a child can lead to social isolation. Retirement, the sudden end of daily work relationships, and the death of close friends or spouses can also exacerbate social isolation.

In the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, a significant number of elderly individuals in their 80s and 90s are placed in nursing homes if they exhibit severe signs of social isolation. In contrast, many societies in Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, East Asia, and the Caribbean and South America do not typically favor admission to nursing homes, opting instead for children and extended family members to care for elderly parents until their passing. Furthermore, a report from Statistics Norway in 2016 indicated that more than 30 percent of seniors over the age of 66 have two or fewer people to rely on in times of personal difficulties. Still, nearly half of all members of senior communities are at high risk for social isolation, particularly prevalent among seniors with lower education levels and those in lower economic classes, further exacerbated by limited socializing opportunities for these individuals. Additionally, there has been a noted increase in physical gait issues among members of these communities.

Social isolation among older adults has been linked to an increase in disease morbidity, a higher risk of dementia, and decreased physical mobility, along with escalating general health concerns. Evidence of greater cognitive decline has been linked to increased social isolation in depressed elderly women. Meanwhile, enhanced social connectedness has been associated with health improvements among older adults.

The use of video communication and video calls has been suggested as a potential intervention to alleviate social isolation among seniors. However, its effectiveness is still unknown.

Isolation, health, and mortality

Social isolation and loneliness in older adults are associated with an increased risk of poor mental and physical health, as well as increased mortality. Individuals experiencing social isolation face a higher risk of early mortality compared to those who are not socially isolated. Studies have found that social isolation is linked to a greater risk of physical health conditions, including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, elevated stress hormones, and weakened immune systems. Research also indicates that social isolation and mortality in the elderly share a common connection to chronic inflammation, with some differences observed between men and women. Additionally, social isolation has been found to correlate with poor mental health, including a higher risk of depression, cognitive decline, anxiety, and substance use. Furthermore, social isolation among elderly individuals is also linked to an increased risk of dementia. However, not all studies have found social isolation to be associated with the risk of poor health outcomes.

Isolation among children and teens

Middle school is a time when youth tend to be sensitive to social challenges and their self-esteem can be fragile. During this vulnerable period of development, supporting students' sense of belonging at school is critically important. Existing research finds that adolescents' development of a sense of belonging is a key factor in creating social and emotional well-being and academic success during this stage. Studies have shown that friendship-related loneliness is more predictive of depressive symptoms among adolescents than parent-related loneliness. One possible explanation is that friends are the preferred source of social support during adolescence.

Researchers have long recognized that loneliness in adults can lead to depressive symptoms later in life. Similarly, studies indicate that lonely children are more vulnerable to experiencing depression during their youth. One study concludes that preventing loneliness in childhood could serve as a protective factor against depression in later years. Children who are socially isolated often achieve lower levels of education, belong to less advantaged social classes as adults, and are more prone to psychological distress in their adult lives. Research shows that with social assistance, children can manage high stress levels more effectively. Additionally, social support is closely linked to feelings of mastery and the capacity to handle challenging situations, as well as being associated with an enhanced quality of life.