Mysticism
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Mysticism is commonly referred to as becoming one with God or the Absolute, but it can also denote any form of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness that carries a religious or spiritual significance. Additionally, it may pertain to the realization of profound or hidden truths and to human transformation facilitated by various practices and experiences.
The term "mysticism" has Ancient Greek origins and various historically determined meanings. Derived from the Greek word μύω múō, meaning "to close" or "to conceal," mysticism came to refer to the biblical, liturgical (and sacramental), spiritual, and contemplative dimensions of early and medieval Christianity. During the early modern period, the definition of mysticism grew to include a broad range of beliefs and ideologies related to "extraordinary experiences and states of mind."
In modern times, "mysticism" has acquired a limited definition, with broad applications. It means the aim at "union with the Absolute, the Infinite, or God." This limited definition has been applied to a wide range of religious traditions and practices, valuing "mystical experience" as a key element of mysticism.
Since the 1960s, scholars have debated the merits of perennial and constructionist approaches to the scientific research of "mystical experiences." The perennial position is now "largely dismissed by scholars," with most scholars using a contextualist approach that considers the cultural and historical context.
Etymology
Henosis
"Mysticism" is derived from the Greek μύω, meaning "I conceal", and its derivative μυστικός, mystikos, meaning 'an initiate'. The verb μύω has received a quite different meaning in Greek, where it is still in use. The primary meanings it has are "induct" and "initiate". Secondary meanings include "introduce", "make someone aware of something", "train", "familiarize", "give first experience of something".
The related form of the verb μυέω (mueó or myéō) appears in the New Testament. Strong's Concordance explains that it properly means shutting the eyes and mouth to experience mystery. Its figurative meaning is to be initiated into the "mystery revelation". The meaning derives from the initiatory rites of the pagan mysteries.[web 2] Also appearing in the New Testament is the related noun μυστήριον (mustérion or mystḗrion), the root word of the English term "mystery". The term means "anything hidden", a mystery or secret, of which initiation is necessary. In the New Testament it reportedly takes the meaning of the counsels of God, once hidden but now revealed in the Gospel or some fact thereof, the Christian revelation generally, and/or particular truths or details of the Christian revelation.[web 3]
According to Thayer's Greek Lexicon, the term μυστήριον in classical Greek means "a hidden thing", or "secret." A particular meaning it took in Classical antiquity was a religious secret or religious secrets, confided only to the initiated and not to be communicated by them to ordinary mortals. In the Septuagint and the New Testament, the meaning it took was that of a hidden purpose or counsel, a secret will. It is sometimes used for the hidden wills of humans but is more often used for the hidden will of God. Elsewhere in the Bible, it takes the meaning of the mystic or hidden sense of things. It is used for the secrets behind sayings, names, or behind images seen in visions and dreams. The Vulgate often translates the Greek term to the Latin sacramentum (sacrament).
The related noun μύστης (mustis or mystis, singular) means the initiate, the person initiated to the mysteries.[web 3] According to Ana Jiménez San Cristobal in her study of Greco-Roman mysteries and Orphism, the singular form μύστης and the plural form μύσται are used in ancient Greek texts to mean the person or persons initiated to religious mysteries. These followers of mystery religions belonged to a select group, where access was only gained through initiation. She finds that the terms were associated with the term βάκχος (Bacchus), which was used for a special class of initiates of the Orphic mysteries. The terms are first found connected in the writings of Heraclitus. Such initiates are identified in texts with the persons who have been purified and have performed certain rites. A passage of Cretans by Euripides seems to explain that the μύστης (initiate) who devotes himself to an ascetic life, renounces sexual activities, and avoids contact with the dead becomes known as βάκχος. Such initiates were believers in the god Dionysus Bacchus who took on the name of their god and sought an identification with their deity.
Until the sixth century, the practice of what is now called mysticism was referred to by the term contemplatio, c.q. theoria. According to Johnston, "[b]oth contemplation and mysticism speak of the eye of love which is looking at, gazing at, aware of divine realities."
Definitions
According to Peter Moore, the term "mysticism" is "problematic but indispensable." It is a generic term that joins together into one concept, separate practices, and ideas that develop separately. According to Dupré, "mysticism" has been defined in many ways, and Merkur notes that the definition, or meaning, of the term "mysticism" has changed through the ages. Moore further notes that "mysticism" has become a popular label for "anything nebulous, esoteric, occult, or supernatural."
Parsons warns that "what might at times seem to be a straightforward phenomenon exhibiting an unambiguous commonality has become, at least within the academic study of religion, opaque and controversial on multiple levels." Because of its Christian overtones and the lack of similar terms in other cultures, some scholars regard "mysticism" as inadequate as a valid descriptive term. Others regard it as an inauthentic fabrication, the "product of post-Enlightenment universalism."
Richard Jones notes that "few classical mystics refer to their experiences as the union of two realities: there is no literal 'merging' or 'absorption' of one reality into another resulting in only one entity." He explicates mysticism regarding one's mode of access to include both the mystic's union with some transcendent reality and the non-sensory revelation of that reality. The mystic experience can be defined by the mystic's purported access to "realities or states of affairs that are of a kind not accessible by way of ordinary sense-perception structured by mental conceptions, somatosensory modalities, or standard introspection." Whether or not such an experience is veridical remains undecided.
Union and mystical experience
Deriving from Neo-Platonism and Henosis, mysticism is popularly known as union with God or the Absolute. In the 13th century, the term unio mystica came to be used to refer to the "spiritual marriage", the ecstasy, or rapture, that was experienced when prayer was used "to contemplate both God's omnipresence in the world and God in his essence."[web 4] In the 19th century, under the influence of Romanticism, this "union" was interpreted as a "religious experience", which provides certainty about God or a transcendental reality.
An influential proponent of this understanding was William James (1842–1910), who stated that "in mystic states we both become one with the Absolute and we become aware of our oneness." William James popularized this use of the term "religious experience" in his The Varieties of Religious Experience, contributing to the interpretation of mysticism as a distinctive experience comparable to sensory experiences. Religious experiences belonged to the "personal religion",which he considered to be "more fundamental than either theology or ecclesiasticism". He gave a Perennialist interpretation to religious experience, stating that this kind of experience is ultimately uniform in various traditions.
McGinn notes that the term "unio mystica," while stemming from Christian origins, is primarily a contemporary expression. He argues that "presence" is a more accurate term than "union," as not all mystics referred to a union with God, and many visions and miracles were not necessarily linked to it. Furthermore, he suggests we should discuss the "consciousness" of God's presence instead of "experience" since mystical activity encompasses more than just the sensation of God as an external object; it involves "new ways of knowing and loving grounded in states of awareness where God becomes present in our inner acts."
However, the term "union" does not apply in all contexts. For instance, in Advaita Vedanta, there is only one reality (Brahman), and therefore nothing other than reality to unite with it—Brahman in each individual (atman) has always been identical to Brahman from the start. Dan Merkur also points out that the concept of union with God or the Absolute is a too narrow definition, as there are traditions that seek not a sense of unity, but of nothingness, such as Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and Meister Eckhart. According to Merkur, both Kabbala and Buddhism emphasize nothingness. Blakemore and Jennett observe that "definitions of mysticism [...] are often vague." They further remark that this particular approach to interpretation and definition is a recent development that has become the standard definition and understanding.
Gellman states, "A unitive experience involves a phenomenological de-emphasis, blurring, or eradication of multiplicity, where the cognitive significance of the experience is deemed to lie precisely in that phenomenological feature".
Religious ecstasies and interpretative context Template:Wkimain Mysticism involves an explanatory context that provides meaning for mystical and visionary experiences, as well as for related experiences like trances. According to Dan Merkur, mysticism may relate to any form of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness, along with the ideas and explanations associated with them. Parsons emphasizes the importance of distinguishing between temporary experiences and mysticism as a process, which is rooted within a "religious matrix" of texts and practices. Richard Jones makes a similar point. Peter Moore observes that mystical experiences can also occur spontaneously and naturally for individuals who are not committed to any religious tradition. These experiences are not necessarily interpreted within a religious framework. Ann Taves questions the processes by which experiences are categorized and considered religious or mystical.
Intuitive insight and enlightenment Some authors emphasize that mystical experiences involve an intuitive understanding of the meaning of existence and uncovering hidden truths, as well as resolving life's problems. Larson states, "mystical experience is an intuitive understanding and realization of the meaning of existence." McClenon describes mysticism as "the doctrine that special mental states or events allow an understanding of ultimate truths." James R. Horne explains that mystical illumination is "a central visionary experience [...] that results in the resolution of a personal or religious problem."
According to Evelyn Underhill, illumination is a generic English term for the phenomenon of mysticism. The term is derived from the Latin illumination, which was applied to Christian prayer in the 15th century. Comparable Asian terms are bodhi, kenshō, and satori in Buddhism, commonly translated as "enlightenment," and vipassana, which all refer to cognitive processes of intuition and comprehension.
Spiritual life and re-formation
- Wikipedia article: Spiritual development
Other authors point out that mysticism involves more than "mystical experience." According to Gellman, the ultimate goal of mysticism is human transformation, not just experiencing mystical or visionary states.[note 13][note 14] According to McGinn, personal transformation is the essential criterion to determine the authenticity of Christian mysticism.
History of the term
Hellenistic world
In the Hellenistic world, 'mystical' referred to "secret" religious rituals like the Eleusinian Mysteries. The use of the word lacked any direct references to the transcendental. A "mystikos" was an initiate of a mystery religion.
Early Christianity
In early Christianity, the term "mystikos" referred to three intertwined dimensions: the biblical, the liturgical, and the spiritual or contemplative. The biblical dimension pertains to "hidden" or allegorical interpretations of Scriptures. The liturgical dimension relates to the liturgical mystery of the Eucharist and the presence of Christ in it. The third dimension is the contemplative or experiential knowledge of God.
Until the sixth century, the Greek term theoria, which means "contemplation" in Latin, referred to the mystical interpretation of the Bible and the vision of God. The connection between mysticism and the divine vision was established by the early Church Fathers, who used the term as an adjective, such as in mystical theology and mystical contemplation.
Theoria allowed the Fathers to perceive depths of meaning in the biblical writings that escape a purely scientific or empirical approach to interpretation. The Antiochene Fathers, in particular, recognized a double meaning in every passage of Scripture, both literal and spiritual.
Later, theoria or contemplation came to be distinguished from intellectual life, leading to the identification of θεωρία or contemplation with a form of prayer distinguished from discursive meditation in both East and West.
Medieval meaning
The threefold meaning of "mystical" persisted through the Middle Ages. According to Dan Merkur, the term unio mystica began to be used in the 13th century as a synonym for "spiritual marriage," representing the ecstasy or rapture experienced when prayer was employed "to contemplate both God's omnipresence in the world and God in his essence." Mysticism also manifested in various sects of the period, such as the Waldensians.
Apophatic theology
Under the influence of Pseudo-Dionysius, the term "Areopagite" came to signify the mystical theology that explores the allegorical truths of the Bible and encompasses "the spiritual awareness of the ineffable Absolute beyond the theology of divine names." Pseudo-Dionysius' apophatic theology, or "negative theology," significantly shaped medieval monastic religiosity, primarily impacting male religiosity, as women were prohibited from studying. Additionally, it drew upon Neoplatonism and profoundly influenced Eastern Orthodox Christian theology. In Western Christianity, it served as a counter-current to the prevailing cataphatic theology, or "positive theology."
Renaissance
In the 1400s, leading theologian Jean Gerson wrote several books on "mystical theology," which referred to any theology (or divine-human knowledge) that occurred in the affective realm (related to the will and emotions) rather than the intellective one. This form of mysticism served as a broad category that included the positive knowledge of God obtained, for instance, through practical "repentant activity" (such as partaking in sacraments), rather than being about passive esoteric or transcendent religious ecstasy. It acted as an antidote to the "self-aggrandizing hyper-inquisitiveness" of Scholasticism and was attainable even by simple, uneducated individuals. The result of affective mysticism may be to perceive God's goodness or love rather than, say, his radical otherness.
The theology of Catherine of Siena was analyzed in terms of mystical theology by Baron Friedrich von Hügel in *The Mystical Element of Religion as Studied in St. Catherine of Genoa and Her Friends* (1908). Von Hügel proposed three elements of religious experience: the institutional/historical, the intellectual/speculative, and the mystical/experiential.
For Erasmus, mysticism subsisted in contemplating the deep secrets contained in the Bible, notably the startling personality of Christ.
Early modern meaning
Before Saint Teresa of Ávila, Peter Paul Rubens, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, mysticism began to be recognized as a substantive. This shift was connected to a new discourse that separated science from religion.
Luther dismissed the allegorical interpretation of the Bible and condemned mystical theology, which he considered more Platonic than Christian. The concept of "the mystical," defined as the pursuit of hidden meanings in texts, became secularized and was also associated with literature, contrasting with science and prose.
Science was also distinguished from religion. By the middle of the 17th century, "the mystical" is increasingly applied exclusively to the religious realm, separating religion and "natural philosophy" as two distinct approaches to discovering the hidden meaning of the universe. The traditional hagiographies and writings of the saints became designated as "mystical", shifting from the virtues and miracles to extraordinary experiences and states of mind, thereby creating a newly coined "mystical tradition". A new understanding developed of the Divine as residing within human, an essence beyond the varieties of religious expressions.
Contemporary meaning
The 19th century witnessed an increasing focus on personal experience as a counter to the rising rationalism in Western society. The definition of mysticism was significantly restricted.
- The competition between the perspectives of theology and science resulted in a compromise in which most varieties of what had traditionally been called mysticism were dismissed as merely psychological phenomena and only one variety, which aimed at union with the Absolute, the Infinite, or God—and thereby the perception of its essential unity or oneness—was claimed to be genuinely mystical. The historical evidence, however, does not support such a narrow conception of mysticism.
Under the influence of Perennialism, which was popularized in both the West and the East by Unitarianism, Transcendentalism, and Theosophy, mysticism has been applied to a broad range of religious traditions, in which various forms of esotericism, religious practices, and beliefs are interconnected. The term mysticism was broadened to include similar phenomena in non-Christian religions, where it impacted Hindu and Buddhist responses to colonialism, leading to Neo-Vedanta and Buddhist modernism.
In contemporary usage, "mysticism" has become an umbrella term for various non-rational worldviews, parapsychology, and pseudoscience. William Harmless even states that mysticism has turned into "a catch-all for religious weirdness." Within the academic study of religion, the apparent "unambiguous commonality" has become "opaque and controversial." The term "mysticism" is used differently across various traditions. Some highlight the conflation of mysticism with related terms such as spirituality and esotericism, noting the differences between the various traditions.
- More information is available at [ Wikipedia:Mysticism ]
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