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Psychological theories of magic treat magic as a personal phenomenon intended to meet individual needs instead of a social phenomenon serving a collective purpose.

Theories

Faulty thinking

{{wiimain| magical thinking)) Among the earliest psychological theories is the psychosis theory, advanced by Sigmund Freud. According to this theory, “primitive man” is not a rational being, and in fact, magical thinking strongly resembles neuroses. However, this conclusion has come into question, as more recent psychological theory acknowledges that psychological testing does not cross cultures with complete accuracy.

Bad science

In contrast, the “bad science” model claims that primitive man is rational and that magical beliefs exist as he tries to explain puzzling phenomena without enough information. According to this theory, the magician is an early form of scientist who merely lacks adequate data. In Edward Burnett Tylor’s version of this theory, the magician’s folly is in mistaking an ideal connection for a real one; the magician believes that thematically linked items can influence one another by their similarity. For example, the Azande rub crocodile teeth on banana plants to make them fruitful (because crocodile teeth grow continuously). The property of fertility can spread from a symbol of fertility (the crocodile tooth) to the intended target (the banana tree). Michael F. Brown observes that many Aguaruna taboos can be understood as preventing undesired connections.

Symbolic action

The symbolic action theory understands magic as a course of action taken when an emotional (psychological) need exists for action, but no practical option exists. In R.R. Marett’s example, it is a magical action when a man, betrayed by his mistress, gathers photographs of her and burns them. This interpretation presents a modern analog of the voodoo doll. As Marett describes, if the emotional situation proves familiar enough, the response becomes a socially codified norm that outsiders understand as magic, which Marett labels “developed magic.” Claude Lévi-Strauss and Ariel Glucklich expand upon symbolic theory, positing that magic can serve as a form of psychotherapy or New Age science, accomplishing accurate results by what amounts to the placebo effect. The effects of such magic would be made real through its impact on the person as demonstrated in their life and actions.

Leading thinkers of this category, including Stanley J. Tambiah, believe magic is meant to be expressive rather than instrumental. Unlike Frazer's direct, mimetic thinking, Tambiah asserts that magic utilizes abstract analogies to express a desired state along metonymy or metaphor.

An important question raised by this interpretation is how mere symbols could exert material effects. One possible answer lies in John L. Austin's concept of performativity, in which saying something makes it accurate, such as in an inaugural or marital rite. Other theories propose that magic is practical because symbols can affect internal psycho-physical states. They claim that the act of expressing a particular anxiety or desire can be reparative in itself.

Anxiety relief

According to theories of anxiety relief and control, people turn to magical beliefs when there exists a sense of uncertainty and potential danger and little to do about it. Magic is used to restore a sense of control. In support of this theory, research indicates that superstitious behavior is often invoked in high-stress situations, especially by people with a greater desire for power. It is proposed that one reason (but not necessarily the only reason) for the persistence of magic rituals is that the ritual activates vigilance-precaution systems – that is to say, that the rituals prompt their use by creating a feeling of insecurity and then proposing themselves as precautions.

Pascal Boyer and Pierre Liénard propose that the shape rituals result from goal demotion and attentional focus on lower-level representation. J.M. Zacks and Barbara Tversky previously described levels of representation. At the lowest level are simple gestures (such as putting the left foot in a shoe). At the mid-level are behavioral episodes (such as putting one’s shoes on). At the highest level are scripts (such as getting dressed to go out). Everyday experience tells us that, ordinarily, people describe and recall behavior in terms of the middle level of behavioral episodes.

In studies of obsessive-compulsive rituals, the focus shifts to the lower level of gestures, resulting in goal demotion. For example, an obsessive-compulsive cleaning ritual may overemphasize the order, direction, and number of wipes used to clean the surface. The goal becomes less important than the actions used to achieve it, implying that magic rituals can persist without efficacy because the intent is lost within the act. Debate remains as to whether studies of obsessive-compulsive rituals can be extended to describe other kinds of rituals.

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-Psychological Theories of Magic: Understanding the Mind’s Role in the Mysterious
+{{Header|Psychological theories of magic 01/25}}
+{{stack|
+{{Magick box}}
+{{Cryptognosticism}}}}
+'''Psychological theories of magic''' treat magic as a personal phenomenon intended to meet individual needs instead of a social phenomenon serving a collective purpose.
-Magic has been a fundamental part of human culture for millennia, permeating myths, rituals, literature, and entertainment. While magic is often associated with the supernatural or the unexplained, psychological theories of magic focus on the ways in which human cognition, perception, and emotions contribute to the experience and practice of magical beliefs and illusions. This article explores the psychological dimensions of magic, weaving together cognitive psychology, social psychology, and neuroscience to uncover why magic resonates so deeply with the human mind.
+== Theories ==
+=== Faulty thinking ===
+{{wiimain| magical thinking))
+Among the earliest psychological theories is the psychosis theory, advanced by [[Sigmund Freud]]. According to this theory, “primitive man” is not a rational being, and in fact, magical thinking strongly resembles neuroses. However, this conclusion has come into question, as more recent psychological theory acknowledges that psychological testing does not cross cultures with complete accuracy.
-Defining Magic: A Multifaceted Phenomenon
+=== Bad science ===
+In contrast, the “bad science” model claims that primitive man is rational and that magical beliefs exist as he tries to explain puzzling phenomena without enough information. According to this theory, the magician is an early form of scientist who merely lacks adequate data. In Edward Burnett Tylor’s version of this theory, the magician’s folly is in mistaking an ideal connection for a real one; the magician believes that thematically linked items can influence one another by their similarity. For example, the Azande rub crocodile teeth on banana plants to make them fruitful (because crocodile teeth grow continuously). The property of fertility can spread from a symbol of fertility (the crocodile tooth) to the intended target (the banana tree). Michael F. Brown observes that many Aguaruna taboos can be understood as preventing undesired connections.
-Magic is a complex concept that can be categorized into two broad domains:
+=== Symbolic action ===
+The symbolic action theory understands magic as a course of action taken when an emotional (psychological) need exists for action, but no practical option exists. In R.R. Marett’s example, it is a magical action when a man, betrayed by his mistress, gathers photographs of her and burns them. This interpretation presents a modern analog of the voodoo doll. As Marett describes, if the emotional situation proves familiar enough, the response becomes a socially codified norm that outsiders understand as magic, which Marett labels “developed magic.” Claude Lévi-Strauss and Ariel Glucklich expand upon symbolic theory, positing that magic can serve as a form of psychotherapy or New Age science, accomplishing accurate results by what amounts to the placebo effect. The effects of such magic would be made real through its impact on the person as demonstrated in their life and actions.
-Performative Magic: The art of illusion performed by magicians to entertain and astonish audiences.
+Leading thinkers of this category, including Stanley J. Tambiah, believe magic is meant to be expressive rather than instrumental. Unlike Frazer's direct, mimetic thinking, Tambiah asserts that magic utilizes abstract analogies to express a desired state along metonymy or metaphor.
-Belief-based Magic: Practices rooted in cultural or religious traditions, such as rituals, divination, or spell-casting, often linked to the supernatural.
+An important question raised by this interpretation is how mere symbols could exert material effects. One possible answer lies in John L. Austin's concept of performativity, in which saying something makes it accurate, such as in an inaugural or marital rite. Other theories propose that magic is practical because symbols can affect internal psycho-physical states. They claim that the act of expressing a particular anxiety or desire can be reparative in itself.
-Both forms rely on the psychological principles of attention, perception, and belief. Performative magic uses misdirection and cognitive biases to create illusions, while belief-based magic taps into human emotions and the need for meaning, control, and connection.
+=== Anxiety relief ===
+According to theories of anxiety relief and control, people turn to magical beliefs when there exists a sense of uncertainty and potential danger and little to do about it. Magic is used to restore a sense of control. In support of this theory, research indicates that superstitious behavior is often invoked in high-stress situations, especially by people with a greater desire for power. It is proposed that one reason (but not necessarily the only reason) for the persistence of magic rituals is that the ritual activates vigilance-precaution systems – that is to say, that the rituals prompt their use by creating a feeling of insecurity and then proposing themselves as precautions.
-Cognitive Psychology and Magic
+Pascal Boyer and Pierre Liénard propose that the shape rituals result from goal demotion and attentional focus on lower-level representation. J.M. Zacks and Barbara Tversky previously described levels of representation. At the lowest level are simple gestures (such as putting the left foot in a shoe). At the mid-level are behavioral episodes (such as putting one’s shoes on). At the highest level are scripts (such as getting dressed to go out). Everyday experience tells us that, ordinarily, people describe and recall behavior in terms of the middle level of behavioral episodes.
-Cognitive psychology examines how we perceive, think, and remember. Magic exploits these processes to create effects that defy logical explanation. Key cognitive principles involved in magic include:
+In studies of obsessive-compulsive rituals, the focus shifts to the lower level of gestures, resulting in goal demotion. For example, an obsessive-compulsive cleaning ritual may overemphasize the order, direction, and number of wipes used to clean the surface. The goal becomes less important than the actions used to achieve it, implying that magic rituals can persist without efficacy because the intent is lost within the act. Debate remains as to whether studies of obsessive-compulsive rituals can be extended to describe other kinds of rituals.
-. Attention and Misdirection
+== See also ==
+* Psychology of religion – Analytic approach to religion
+* Illusion of control – False belief in an ability to control events
+* Psychological resilience – Ability to mentally cope with a crisis
+* Self-deception – Psychology of false perceptions and their impact on human behavior
+* Catharsis – Psychological event that purges emotions
+* Ritology – the study of rituals
+* Ritualization – biological phenomenon
-Magicians are masters of directing attention. They guide the audience’s focus to one element of a performance while concealing crucial actions elsewhere. This manipulation leverages the limited capacity of human attention:
+{{wr}}
+== External links ==
-Inattentional Blindness: When focused on a task, people often fail to notice unrelated changes or events. For example, a magician may draw attention to their left hand while performing a crucial sleight with their right.
+{{Footer}}
-Change Blindness: People often fail to detect changes in their environment, especially if these changes occur during a distraction. This principle is central to tricks involving swapped objects or transformed states.
+{{cats|Psychological|magic}
-. Memory Distortions
-Our memories are not perfect records of reality but reconstructive processes influenced by biases and emotions. Magicians exploit this by creating experiences that are remembered differently than they occurred. For instance:
-False Memories: A magician’s patter may implant misleading details into an audience member’s memory.
-Recency and Primacy Effects: People are more likely to remember the beginning and end of an event, which magicians use to emphasize key moments while concealing intervening actions.
-. Expectations and Schema
-Schemas are mental frameworks that help us interpret information based on past experiences. Magicians exploit these to create surprising outcomes:
-Violation of Expectations: By setting up a predictable sequence and then subverting it, magicians create moments of astonishment.
-Implicit Assumptions: Tricks often work because audiences unconsciously fill in gaps based on their schemas, such as assuming an object’s continuity or the transparency of actions.
-Social Psychology and Magic
-Social psychology explores how individuals interact with and are influenced by others. Magic performances are social events, and social dynamics play a crucial role in their impact.
-. Trust and Authority
-Magicians establish themselves as authoritative figures in control of the performance. The audience’s willingness to trust the magician allows the illusion to unfold. This dynamic is enhanced by:
-Charisma: A magician’s confidence and charm can disarm skepticism.
-Social Proof: Reactions from other audience members can validate the magic, creating a group consensus that something extraordinary has occurred.
-. Group Dynamics
-Magic is often more impactful in a group setting, where shared emotional reactions amplify the experience. Factors include:
-Contagion of Emotion: Laughter, gasps, and applause are contagious, reinforcing the sense of wonder.
-Deindividuation: In a group, individuals may be less critical or more willing to suspend disbelief, aligning with the collective mood.
-. Suggestibility and Influence
-Magicians use suggestion to shape audience perceptions and choices. This is linked to:
-The Power of Suggestion: Subtle cues or verbal framing can guide an audience member to “choose” a predetermined card.
-Conformity: Audience members may align their reactions with perceived norms, further enhancing the illusion’s impact.
-Neuroscience of Magic
-Neuroscience offers insights into the brain mechanisms that underpin magical experiences. Advances in neuroimaging and cognitive science have revealed how magic engages neural processes related to surprise, prediction, and emotion.
-. Prediction and Surprise
-The brain constantly generates predictions about the world. Magic disrupts these predictions, creating a sense of wonder. This involves:
-Prediction Error: When reality deviates from expectations, the brain experiences a prediction error, which triggers heightened attention and emotional arousal.
-Dopaminergic Response: Surprises activate dopamine pathways, creating feelings of pleasure and reward associated with the experience of magic.
-. Mirror Neurons and Empathy
-Mirror neurons enable us to simulate others’ actions and emotions. During a magic performance, these neurons may contribute to:
-Shared Astonishment: Audiences empathize with the magician’s apparent mastery and the shared surprise of fellow spectators.
-Illusion of Agency: Observers may feel as if they are participating in the magician’s skill, deepening engagement.
-. Emotion and Memory
-Magic often elicits strong emotional reactions, such as awe, curiosity, or delight. These emotions enhance memory consolidation:
-Amygdala Activation: Emotional arousal strengthens the encoding of magical moments in long-term memory.
-Vivid Recall: The emotional intensity of a trick ensures it remains a vivid and cherished memory.
-Psychological Theories in Belief-Based Magic
-Belief-based magic, such as rituals or spells, often operates on principles that address psychological needs. These practices are less about deception and more about fulfilling emotional and cognitive functions.
-. Cognitive Dissonance and Rituals
-Cognitive dissonance occurs when there is a discrepancy between beliefs and actions. Rituals can resolve this tension by providing a structured way to reaffirm beliefs. For example:
-Symbolic Acts: Performing a ritual reinforces the belief that one has control over uncertain outcomes.
-Justification of Effort: The more effortful or elaborate a ritual, the more meaningful its outcome is perceived to be.
-. Magical Thinking
-Magical thinking refers to the attribution of causality to unrelated events, often based on symbolic or associative connections. This is common in both children and adults:
-Law of Similarity: Belief that actions resembling a desired outcome can influence it (e.g., a rain dance).
-Law of Contagion: Belief that objects in contact retain a connection (e.g., lucky charms).
-. Placebo Effect
-Belief in magic can trigger real psychological and physiological changes, akin to the placebo effect:
-Expectation and Belief: Confidence in a spell or ritual’s efficacy can lead to perceived or actual outcomes.
-Stress Reduction: Rituals can provide comfort and reduce anxiety by creating a sense of control.
-Cross-Cultural Perspectives
-Magic is a universal phenomenon, but its manifestations vary across cultures. Understanding these variations provides insights into the psychological underpinnings of magic:
-Shamanism and Healing: Many cultures use magical rituals for healing, combining psychological suggestion with communal support.
-Myths and Archetypes: Stories of magic often reflect universal psychological themes, such as the hero’s journey or the triumph over chaos.
-Superstitions: Cultural practices often embody magical thinking, such as knocking on wood or carrying talismans.
-The Appeal of Magic: Why It Endures
-Magic’s enduring appeal lies in its ability to tap into fundamental human experiences and desires:
-Curiosity and Wonder: Magic ignites curiosity, compelling us to seek explanations for the inexplicable.
-Suspension of Disbelief: Audiences willingly suspend skepticism to experience the joy of astonishment.
-Control and Meaning: Belief-based magic provides psychological comfort by imposing order on a chaotic world.
-Social Connection: Magic fosters shared experiences, strengthening bonds between individuals and communities.
-Conclusion
-Psychological theories of magic illuminate the profound interplay between human cognition, emotion, and culture. Whether experienced as a dazzling stage performance or a deeply held belief, magic resonates because it speaks to core aspects of the human condition: our search for meaning, our capacity for wonder, and our intricate mental processes. By studying magic through the lens of psychology, we gain not only an understanding of the tricks and beliefs that enchant us but also a deeper appreciation for the complexities of the human mind.