Mate value

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Mate value originates from Charles Darwin's theory of evolution and sexual selection, along with the social exchange theory of relationships. It is defined as the collection of traits perceived as desirable, indicating genetic quality and/or fitness, and serves as a measure of a potential mate's reproductive success. Grounded in mate desirability and preference, mate value plays a crucial role in mate selection and the formation of romantic relationships.

Mate value can predict the availability of mates; for example, a higher mate value indicates that one is desirable to more individuals and can therefore afford to be more selective in mate selection. Thus, one's mate value can influence trait and mate preferences. It has been shown that individuals tend to prefer partners with similar mate values to avoid rejection. Specifically, one could infer that an individual's mate value directly impacts partner choice through biological market theory. In this context, it is believed that 'high-market' individuals (more attractive individuals) are able to translate mate preference into actual choice, primarily because they have more to offer, such as positive health markers, which consequently affects reproductive success. Ultimately, mate value has been suggested as a determining factor in mate choice, thus influencing an individual's reproductive success.

Factors like attractiveness can influence perceived mate value. It has been suggested that preferences shape an individual's mate value, leading some to prioritize certain characteristics over others. This results in potential mates having different (subjective) mate values based on the preferences of the mate-seeker.

Further influences of mate value may include cultural effects, sex differences, and evolutionary impacts.

Evolution

Evolutionary theory provides evidence suggesting that individuals seek the highest possible mate value, in both themselves and others. Mate values that are generally seen as preferential include fertility, reproductive ability, health, age, intelligence, status, parenting skills, kindness, and the willingness and ability to invest in offspring. However, individuals differ and consequently value characteristics in various ways, leading to a time-consuming search, particularly if one looks for a mate based on their own mate value. These individual differences in mate value hold significant evolutionary importance for survival, mating, and reproductive success. Despite this, Buss et al. (2001) demonstrate how various mate values have fluctuated in preference over time. With the advent of birth control and contraception, chastity has become a less favored mate value, whereas dependable character, emotional stability, and maturity continue to be highly desired.

In the book The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture (1995), Ellis conveys the features women associate with high mate value. These characteristics include economic status, a willingness to invest in relationships, security, control of resources, physical maturity and strength, physical dominance, and height. Natural selection has accentuated these preferences, leading to the evolution of mate values based on what females find desirable in their male counterparts.

Cross cultural differences

Cross-cultural influences regarding mate value is another factor that has been studied extensively. When examining body attributes of women, such as waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), research has explored the variations in preference. Douglas and Shepard (1998) found that men from Peruvian tribes preferred a high WHR compared to the Western preference for a low WHR, attributed to their limited media exposure. Another study analyzed artists’ representations of male and female sculptures. When comparing the WHR in Indian, African, Greek, and Egyptian cultures, variations are evident. However, one common feature across all these cultures is that women are consistently depicted with a lower WHR than men.

Another study by Buss et al. (1990) examined mate preferences in 37 different cultures and found that Indians, Chinese, Arabs, and Indonesians place a significant emphasis on chastity, with both males and females prioritizing the search for a mate who has not engaged in previous sexual experiences. Furthermore, Buss et al. (2001) discovered that certain traits, such as financial prospects and attractiveness, remained relatively stable across cultures. Although some evidence supports the importance of waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and other physical attractiveness, Wetsman and Marlowe (1999) analyzed research from a Tanzanian tribe. They found that WHR was not viewed as an essential measure of attractiveness or mate value.

Attractiveness

When examining the factors that influence mate value, physical attractiveness and body features consistently serve as indicators, with certain characteristics predicting higher mate value. Fink and Penton-Voak (2002) observed that facial symmetry is one method for determining a person's attractiveness. Individuals often prioritize a high degree of similarity when selecting a potential mate. Another study investigated the impact of self-perceived attractiveness on mate preference and discovered that females who view themselves as above average in attractiveness generally prefer partners exhibiting higher masculinity.

The waist–hip ratio (WHR) of women is a feature that can be used to measure mate value. When males seek a long-term partner, they look for a healthy female with good reproductive value, and WHR serves as a reliable measure of both. There is also a strong preference for larger breasts, as well as a low WHR when considering both short- and long-term partners. In contrast, when females assess potential male mates, they prioritize different features than men do. It appears that the averageness and texture of a man's face play an important role in his attractiveness. When evaluating short-term mates, male attractiveness is rated higher than when considering long-term partners, where other factors such as resources and financial prospects hold greater importance.

Sexual strategies

Sexual strategies theory, as defined by Buss and Schmitt, focuses on the strategies implemented by both men and women in acquiring mates. From an evolutionary perspective and Parental Investment Theory, males are identified as showing a preference for short-term mates, with a sexual strategy aimed at increasing the number of offspring they produce while providing limited parental investment. In contrast, females display preferences for long-term mates and are choosier in their selections due to the heightened parental investment involved (e.g., pregnancy), and they seek to enhance the reproductive success of their offspring.

Research suggests that mate value influences the strategies individuals use, indicating that those with high mate value can employ their preferred sexual strategy compared to those with lower mate value. For instance, men show a preference for short-term partners; those with higher mate value tend to be viewed as more desirable, linked to preferred traits such as status and resources. Thus, males perceived as having greater mate value are more likely to fulfill the evolutionary preference for multiple short-term partners. Muehlenbein (2010) states, "men of high mate value and women of low mate value will pursue short-term mating strategies." Essentially, individuals with lower mate value are viewed as less attractive by potential mates, resulting in less success in mate selection and retention. Both males and females aim to secure the highest quality mate. Strategies like mate guarding are often employed to ensure ongoing investment and interest in a partner.

Additionally, short-term mating is a proposed method to assess a potential partner's mate value; a strategy often utilized by younger individuals before having offspring. However, a shift in strategy from short-term to long-term occurs when a potential partner possesses a desirable mate value.

Mate guarding

Mate value is also closely linked to mate guarding. Since physical attractiveness is an important component of mate value, there is a clear association between greater physical attractiveness, and therefore high mate value, and high mate guarding. Buss (2002) explains that if a partner's mate value is higher than one's own, there is a greater likelihood that competitors will be interested in their partner. This increased perception of threat from others will lead to more intense mate guarding. A study by Holden et al. (2014) examined the effect of husbands’ self-esteem and perceived mate value of their wives on mate guarding. These researchers posited that husbands with lower self-esteem tend to exhibit mate guarding behaviors. Therefore, mate guarding increases when one's own perceived mate value is low and one's partner's is high. The threat of rivals and the possibility of infidelity causes individuals to guard their mates more closely to maintain their relationship.

Self-esteem

From an evolutionary perspective, research indicates that self-esteem (SE) serves as a tool for individuals to assess their own mate value in the context of long-term relationships.

As one can imagine, the selection of mates, along with the possibilities of rejection and acceptance, is closely associated with an individual's self-esteem. Zeigler-Hill and Shackelford (2015) state that this association arises because individuals place importance on their differing values, specifically their own mate value, or how attractive they believe they are as potential partners. Supporting the Sociometer model of self-esteem, Leary et al. (1995) concluded that social inclusion or exclusion corresponds to participants' levels of self-esteem. For instance, those who are rejected tend to experience lower self-esteem. Kavanagh et al. (2010) also tested the concepts of acceptance and rejection, concluding that levels of self-esteem can alter mating aspirations and mate choice.

Research by Brase and Guy (2004) specifically examined factors that affect an individual's self-esteem regarding mate value. They found that age, sex, and marital status were closely linked to an individual's estimation of their own mate value. As a result, individuals sought to enhance their perceived mate value, showing that mate value is a strong predictor of self-esteem. Additionally, higher levels of parental investment received during childhood are associated with increased self-reported mate value in adulthood, potentially mediated by enhanced self-esteem.

Sex differences

Zeigler-Hill et al. (2015) state that both sexes experience lower self-esteem when rejected, particularly when traits deemed important by themselves and others are devalued. However, noticeable sex differences have been highlighted by researchers. Penke and Denissen (2008) indicated that self-esteem was more closely associated with self-perceived mate value in males. Research concluded that, unlike women, males' own mate value had a significant effect on their self-belief; however, this was true only if they had previously experienced successful short-term mating.

The work of Penke and Denissen (2008) was not relevant to individuals in long-term relationships. Shackelford (1998) examined individuals within a marital context, and the results indicated that a husband's self-esteem was negatively correlated with women's infidelity and complaints, while women's self-esteem was positively correlated with their ratings of physical attractiveness. Additionally, Berscheid and Walster found that men with lower self-esteem were less likely to approach women deemed physically attractive, thereby supporting the link between self-esteem and perceived mate value.

Aggression

Physical attractiveness, as one of the most important signals of mate value, contributes to the display of aggression among both men and women. The high mate value associated with attractiveness has been shown to positively predict aggression. Men and women feel they need to exhibit aggression to compete more effectively (i.e., intimidate their rivals), thereby reducing their competitors’ mate value. In this way, aggression can help minimize threats and lower another's mate value, improving one's self-image and boosting self-esteem.

A study by Webster and Kirkpatrick (2006) suggested that aggression may occur as individuals seek to protect their higher status and establish who is the stronger mating competitor among themselves and those they perceive as less competitive due to lower mate value. Buss (2003) demonstrated that males who tend to use aggression in their relationships and resort to spousal battering have a lower mate value than their partners. As a result of this lower mate value, these males experience heightened fear about a partner being disloyal and potentially cheating, which leads to increased aggression. Nevertheless, Archer and Thanzami showed that males who perceive themselves as more attractive are also more physically aggressive. This finding aligns more closely with the notion based on sexual selection that, overall, males tend to exhibit more aggression.

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