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'''Psychological theories of magic''' treat magic as a personal phenomenon intended to meet individual needs instead of a social phenomenon serving a collective purpose.

== Theories ==
=== Faulty thinking ===
{{wiimain| magical thinking))
Among the earliest psychological theories is the psychosis theory, advanced by [[Sigmund Freud]]. According to this theory, “primitive man” is not a rational being, and in fact, magical thinking strongly resembles neuroses. However, this conclusion has come into question, as more recent psychological theory acknowledges that psychological testing does not cross cultures with complete accuracy.

=== Bad science ===
In contrast, the “bad science” model claims that primitive man is rational and that magical beliefs exist as he tries to explain puzzling phenomena without enough information. According to this theory, the magician is an early form of scientist who merely lacks adequate data. In Edward Burnett Tylor’s version of this theory, the magician’s folly is in mistaking an ideal connection for a real one; the magician believes that thematically linked items can influence one another by their similarity. For example, the Azande rub crocodile teeth on banana plants to make them fruitful (because crocodile teeth grow continuously). The property of fertility can spread from a symbol of fertility (the crocodile tooth) to the intended target (the banana tree). Michael F. Brown observes that many Aguaruna taboos can be understood as preventing undesired connections.

=== Symbolic action ===
The symbolic action theory understands magic as a course of action taken when an emotional (psychological) need exists for action, but no practical option exists. In R.R. Marett’s example, it is a magical action when a man, betrayed by his mistress, gathers photographs of her and burns them. This interpretation presents a modern analog of the voodoo doll. As Marett describes, if the emotional situation proves familiar enough, the response becomes a socially codified norm that outsiders understand as magic, which Marett labels “developed magic.” Claude Lévi-Strauss and Ariel Glucklich expand upon symbolic theory, positing that magic can serve as a form of psychotherapy or New Age science, accomplishing accurate results by what amounts to the placebo effect. The effects of such magic would be made real through its impact on the person as demonstrated in their life and actions.

Leading thinkers of this category, including Stanley J. Tambiah, believe magic is meant to be expressive rather than instrumental. Unlike Frazer's direct, mimetic thinking, Tambiah asserts that magic utilizes abstract analogies to express a desired state along metonymy or metaphor.

An important question raised by this interpretation is how mere symbols could exert material effects. One possible answer lies in John L. Austin's concept of performativity, in which saying something makes it accurate, such as in an inaugural or marital rite. Other theories propose that magic is practical because symbols can affect internal psycho-physical states. They claim that the act of expressing a particular anxiety or desire can be reparative in itself.

=== Anxiety relief ===
According to theories of anxiety relief and control, people turn to magical beliefs when there exists a sense of uncertainty and potential danger and little to do about it. Magic is used to restore a sense of control. In support of this theory, research indicates that superstitious behavior is often invoked in high-stress situations, especially by people with a greater desire for power. It is proposed that one reason (but not necessarily the only reason) for the persistence of magic rituals is that the ritual activates vigilance-precaution systems – that is to say, that the rituals prompt their use by creating a feeling of insecurity and then proposing themselves as precautions.

Pascal Boyer and Pierre Liénard propose that the shape rituals result from goal demotion and attentional focus on lower-level representation. J.M. Zacks and Barbara Tversky previously described levels of representation. At the lowest level are simple gestures (such as putting the left foot in a shoe). At the mid-level are behavioral episodes (such as putting one’s shoes on). At the highest level are scripts (such as getting dressed to go out). Everyday experience tells us that, ordinarily, people describe and recall behavior in terms of the middle level of behavioral episodes.

In studies of obsessive-compulsive rituals, the focus shifts to the lower level of gestures, resulting in goal demotion. For example, an obsessive-compulsive cleaning ritual may overemphasize the order, direction, and number of wipes used to clean the surface. The goal becomes less important than the actions used to achieve it, implying that magic rituals can persist without efficacy because the intent is lost within the act. Debate remains as to whether studies of obsessive-compulsive rituals can be extended to describe other kinds of rituals.

== See also ==
* Psychology of religion – Analytic approach to religion
* Illusion of control – False belief in an ability to control events
* Psychological resilience – Ability to mentally cope with a crisis
* Self-deception – Psychology of false perceptions and their impact on human behavior
* Catharsis – Psychological event that purges emotions
* Ritology – the study of rituals
* Ritualization – biological phenomenon

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== External links ==

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